This document is part of the online version of the book Amheida II: A Late Romano-Egyptian House in the Dakhla Oasis / Amheida House B2 by Anna Lucille Boozer, which is available at http://dlib.nyu.edu/awdl/isaw/amheida-ii-house-b2/. It is published as part of the NYU Library's Ancient World Digital Library and in partnership with the Institute for the Study of the Ancient World (ISAW). Further information about ISAW's publication program is available on the ISAW website. Please note that while the base URI of this publication is stable, the exact content available at that address is likely to change over time.
PLANT USE IN A ROMANO-EGYPTIAN HOUSEHOLD IN THE THIRD CENTURY CE
Ursula Thanheiser and Johannes Walter
Introduction
The Dakhla Oasis is a remote place in the Western Desert of Egypt. It owes its existence to phreatic water feeding to the surface along natural vents. Precipitation is practically non-existent and if it rains at all, this rain occurs as localized torrential downpour. In combination with the high average temperature, this lack of regular precipitation has an adverse effect on any plant growth, and rain-fed agriculture is impossible. The desert surrounding the oasis is almost bare of vegetation, and specialized plants only grow in wadis where their deeply-penetrating roots can reach groundwater. To the best of our knowledge, these hyper-arid conditions already prevailed in Roman times. Agriculture therefore entirely depended on irrigation and the necessary water was extracted via wells. Since the Ptolemaic Period, effective water-lifting devices, such as the water wheel and the Archimedean Screw, have been known in Egypt and facilitated the extraction of sufficient amounts of water.1 The inhabitants of the oasis coped very well with this difficult situation and cultivated almost all of the crop plants known in Egypt at the time, and it is assumed that they even produced a surplus which was traded with the Nile Valley. The affluence of the populace is visible in material goods such as the decoration of houses and the import of luxury items.↩#p3033
Amheida is located in the western part of the oasis, some 20 km northwest of Kellis, a Roman farming settlement situated in central Dakhla on a low sandstone ridge.2 Western Dakhla seems to be wetter than the rest of the oasis, indicated by plants such as Athel tamarisk (Tamarix aphylla) which today only grow here. The damp soils, however, have an adverse effect on the preservation of organic archaeological remains and therefore certain categories of finds which abound at Kellis, most notably papyri, are missing here.↩#p3034
Material and Methods
Sampling
Matrix samples were taken from deposits rich in organic material. Since contamination with younger material is always an issue on shallow sites, it would have been ideal to concentrate on sealed deposits such as floors or fill below them. However, the floors of B2 are not well preserved and are often present as eroded patches only. Therefore, occupational debris above floors was sampled as well. Hence the results represent a gradient of reliability with the most reliable ones from sealed deposits and the least reliable ones from the open courtyard. The sample composition with its dominance of tree crops, however, is more or less the same everywhere in the house (see below).↩#p3035
In addition to the recovery of matrix samples, large items such as olive stones were hand-picked during excavation. These plant remains do not appear in the tables but are mentioned in the text.↩#p3036
Extraction of Plant Remains
Organic material was separated from the soil by two methods, electrostatic extraction3 and flotation. Which method was used depended on the properties of the matrix. Electrostatic extraction was applied to loose, sandy matrices such as occupational debris above floors. From the lumpy soil from floors, plant remains were separated by water flotation.↩#p3037
Both methods split the matrix into two fractions: a (predominantly) organic and a mineral one; the smallest mesh diameter was 0.5mm. From the organic fraction, the plant remains were then isolated manually using a dissecting microscope and identified with the authors´ personal reference collections. Scientific nomenclature for wild plants follows the Flora of Egypt.4 For cultivated plants, the terms known in archaeology are used. Very rich organic fractions were divided with a riffle box, and only a part of the sample (usually half or a quarter) was analyzed. The respective figures given in the tables thus represent calculated, not counted, numbers. Each item was counted as one piece irrespective of its actual completeness. The mineral fraction was screened for possible escapes of the extraction process.↩#p3038
Figure 17.1: Preservation of date stones: charred (top) and partly decomposed due to the damp conditions at the site (bar 1 cm) (photo J. Walter).
Preservation
Plant remains are present in B2 in two states of preservation, charred and desiccated. Charred plant remains are the result of incomplete combustion by which the organic material is reduced to almost pure carbon. In a domestic context, these charred plant remains usually can be attributed to food preparation, the use of plants or dung cakes as fuel, or the accidental burning of structures. Charred plant remains are therefore frequently found throughout the world in domestic contexts. However, since charring works like a filter, only a fraction of the plants previously present at a site would preserve in charred form, and the assemblage is usually biased towards more robust items such as cereal rachis segments.↩#p3039
Desiccated plant remains only occur on sites where a lack of humidity curtails the growth of micro-organisms responsible for the decomposition of organic matter; this mode of preservation is well-known in arid regions. In B2 the desiccated plant remains may reflect activities of its residents such as food preparation, spinning, and weaving; especially in the fill above floors desiccated plant remains also could have derived from the organic temper of eroding mud-bricks; and finally, they could have been blown inside after the house was abandoned. Desiccated plant assemblages are often characterized by excellent preservation, species richness, and the presence of delicate plant parts such as leaves and even flowers, which would not survive combustion. However, in Amheida a high groundwater table and the presence of irrigated fields in the vicinity result in permanently damp soil, and uncharred plant remains suffered from (partial) decomposition (Fig. 17.1). Therefore, delicate plant parts, such as onion skins, which are usually present on Roman sites, are very rare or missing.↩#p3040
Figure 17.2: Date stones gnawed by small rodents (photo J. Walter).
The ratio of charred to desiccated plant remains in B2 is approximately 1:6 and in this respect, B2 differs from B1 where the ratio is reversed (9:1). In contemporaneous houses at Kellis analyzed so far, charred plant remains are rare and mainly derive from ovens.↩#p3041
Vermin were very active in the house, and rodent droppings as well as items partly consumed by mice or rats occur (Fig. 17.2). The standing walls of the house are perforated by the activity of termites which were after the organic temper of the mud-bricks. This visible presence of vermin in combination with damp soil supporting the decomposition of organic material may have contributed to a bias towards large, durable items in the plant assemblage from B2 (see below).↩#p3042
Figure 17.3: Relative proportions of useful and wild plants.
The Archaeobotanical Evidence
A calculated total of 17,009 items was recovered from the rooms (14,460 desiccated and 2,549 charred ones), and 1,143 items from courtyard C2A (1,006 desiccated and 137 charred ones) (Tab. 17.1); in addition, 4.1 % of the plant remains are unidentifiable and do not appear in the lists. The plant remains present in B2 can be grouped into six categories: cereals (chaff and grain), pulses, oil and fiber plants, vegetables, herbs and spices, fruits and nuts, and wild plants (Fig. 17.3).↩#p3043
Cereals
Cereals have been staple foods since the beginning of agriculture, and they are the main source of carbohydrates in human nutrition. The remains of cereals from B2 comprise chaff, i.e. parts of the ear such as rachis segments, glumes, and grain (Fig. 17.4, Fig. 17.5). The two main cereals are hard wheat (Triticum durum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare). In addition, emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum), bread wheat (Triticum aestivum s.l.), and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum ssp. glaucum) are present.↩#p3044
The presence of hard wheat has been reported from Egyptian sites dating back to the Predynastic Period.5 However, until the Ptolemaic period archaeobotanical finds are scarce and it was of no economic importance. With the shift to a more market-oriented agricultural production in Ptolemaic times hard wheat replaced the traditional Pharaonic emmer wheat. In Dakhla, as everywhere else in Egypt at the time, hard wheat was the principal wheat crop, the wheat par excellence. This is also highlighted by the fact that the Kellis Agricultural Account Book (KAB), a record compiled by the overseer of an estate in the late fourth century CE, does not distinguish between different types of wheat.6 Hard wheat is well adapted to warmer climates and gives a larger yield than emmer wheat. It is free-threshing, meaning that its grains are only loosely invested in the glumes, and are released upon threshing. Grain ready for milling can therefore be obtained with comparatively little effort. Furthermore, this also results in a reduction of bulk for storage and transport.7↩#p3045
Figure 17.4: Remains of cereal chaff.
A few rachis segments of another free-threshing wheat, bread wheat, occur throughout the building. This is in accordance with other contemporaneous sites in Egypt, where bread wheat is present in minor quantities.8 The only exception to date is Kellis, where in Area C1 bread wheat is dominant,9 an unusual result requiring further investigations.↩#p3046
Emmer wheat is present in minute quantities in three rooms and in the court. The same situation is reflected in B1 and at Kellis. It has also been reported from other Egyptian sites such as Berenike10 where these remains are interpreted as contaminants. However, one patch of a floor (F11) in room 1 yielded 334 desiccated spikelet forks and 1,829 glume bases11 representing 2,498 grains. It can therefore be assumed that emmer wheat was still a minor crop in Amheida. A similar find in one Islamic context at Quseir al-Qadim is interpreted as import either from Egyptian Nubia or Yemen.12↩#p3047
The second important cereal in B2, as well as generally in the oasis, is hulled barley. Although there is no convincing archaeobotanical evidence, it is assumed that six-row barley (Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare) is present,13 as this barley has been grown in Egypt since the beginning of agriculture.14 Barley is a less demanding crop than wheat. It is much more drought resistant and less vulnerable to high soil salinity, and therefore would have been well-adapted to be grown in marginal areas of the oasis. Some of the barley crop was most likely used for human consumption, to prepare soup and porridge and to brew beer, while the remainder may have served as animal feed.↩#p3048
Figure 17.5: Remains of cereal grain.
Pearl millet, a summer crop of African origin, is rare in Amheida, and only 15 grains and some chaff were found in B2. This stands in strong contrast to Kellis where it occurs regularly throughout the site, and where a bin containing 39 kg of cobs, chaff, and grain was recovered.15 There it was an important component of the diet as is demonstrated by the stable isotope composition of human bone and hair.16 Pearl millet is a dual crop. Traditional varieties tend to be tall, leafy plants that perform best when spaced apart, producing massive amounts of greenery which can be used as animal feed. The nutritional properties of the grain depend on the cultivar and, especially concerning trace elements, of the environment. Besides carbohydrates, pearl millet also provides fat and all essential amino acids, and is a richer source of protein, calcium, phosphorus and iron than most of the other cereals of world importance.↩#p3049
Pulses
Pulses are mainly grown for their seeds rich in protein. In addition, they are attractive for the farmer because, in contrast to most other flowering plants, they are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen through symbiosis with the root bacterium Rhizobium. Therefore, pulses add nitrogen to the soil rather than depleting it. By field rotation or by growing mixed crops of pulses and cereals, the farmer is able to maintain a higher level of soil fertility, which might be of particular importance in the oasis, where it is necessary to compensate for the lack of the fertilizing Nile floods.↩#p3050
The seeds were either eaten fresh or could have been dried and stored for later use. Most prominent among the pulses was the fava bean, consumed roasted, whole, crushed, or ground into flour called lomentum, which was used for baking bread, but usually fava beans were eaten as a mash or as a stew with spices and bacon.17 A wide variety of pulses was available in Egypt in Roman times.18 These include lentil (Lens culinaris), pea (Pisum sativum), fava bean (Vicia faba), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), white lupin or termis bean (Lupinus albus), mung bean (Vigna radiata), and vetch (Lathyrus sativus/cicera). In B2, however, pulses are only scarcely represented, both in numbers and in variety. Only four charred lentils and 19 remains of fava bean, mainly seed coats with hilum, have been recovered. Compared to other Egyptian sites, and considering their important nutritional role in traditional agricultural societies, this is very unusual but appears to be characteristic for the Dakhla Oasis, where so far only lentil and fava bean have been recovered.19↩#p3051
Oil and fiber plants
Remains of four oil and fiber plants, flax or linseed (Linum usitatissimum), cotton (Gossypium sp.), sesame (Sesamum indicum), and safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) were recovered.↩#p3052
Flax has been grown in Egypt since the Predynastic Period, and the fibers of its stems are made into linen used for garments and household textiles.20 In a first step, the bast fibers have to be separated from the stem by retting, bacterial decomposition of the softer tissue of the stem. This is achieved by soaking the stems in stagnant water for about ten days. Although water was in much shorter supply in Dakhla than in the Nile Valley, flax was grown and processed there. This is satisfactorily shown by the recovery of flowers and capsules in B2, which would not be present if the yarn was imported. Flax seeds are the source of a vegetable oil rich in protein and were usually eaten either roasted or in mixed dishes. The oil was also used for cooking, in medicine, and for cosmetics.21↩#p3053
Cotton is a summer crop, and the warm climate of the oasis in combination with irrigation offers ideal conditions for its cultivation. The botanical remains of cotton from B2 consist of 56 desiccated and 45 charred seeds; no capsules are present. Nevertheless it can be assumed that cotton was grown in the oasis, since the KAB mentions payment of dues in cotton and ostraka from Amheida refer to significant amounts of cotton.22 The long, twisted seed hair, lint, is used for the manufacture of textiles. The cotton fiber is softer and more elastic than flax, but less strong. The seeds are rich in oil and protein but also contain the toxic component gossypol,23 and oil therefore has to be refined before consumption.↩#p3054
Sesame, another summer crop, was grown for its edible seed in the Mediterranean Basin in Greco-Roman times. It was domesticated on the Indian subcontinent and spread both east- and westwards.24 It seems to have been known in Egypt at least since the mid-second millennium BC, since a medical papyrus from Thebes, dated to c. 1500 BC, lists herbal remedies including sesame seed and oil.25 However, early finds in Egypt, such as the one from Tutankhamon´s tomb, may represent imports.26 From the Ptolemaic Period onwards it seems to have been an important crop, as is suggested by textual evidence27 as well as archaeological finds. In Roman cuisine it was alternately classified as belonging to frumenta or to legumina.28 The extraction of oil from the seeds was probably restricted to Egypt.29 In Dakhla the seeds are very rare and it is a matter of speculation whether they were grown locally or imported.↩#p3055
The seeds of safflower are rich in oil with a high content of unsaturated fatty acids and can be used in cooking; in addition, red and yellow dyes can be extracted from the flowers, which also serve as a cheap substitute for saffron.30 Finds of flowers in a garland from the mummy of Amenhotep I suggest that safflower has been cultivated in Egypt at least since the New Kingdom.31 In Hellenistic Egypt it was an important crop.32 It is one of the finds with a high frequency in Kellis, but is rather rare in Amheida.↩#p3056
Vegetables, Herbs, Spices, and Ornamentals
Roman cuisine knew two types of vegetables, holera, leaf and root vegetables, and legumina, seeds such as the above-mentioned pulses and sesame. They were an important part of the diet and a variety of seeds, leaf and root crops, salad plants, and pot herbs are mentioned in contemporaneous texts and recipes.33 Among these, pulses, onions and garlic, as well as salads have a long tradition in Egypt.↩#p3057
Spices have always played an important role in Roman cuisine. They were used to flavor food and render it more palatable. In addition, spices and herbs were used for medical purposes in a variety of preparations and were mixed with ointments and oil for hygienic and cosmetic purposes.34 Accordingly, the list of spices and herbs mentioned in various texts is quite long.↩#p3058
However, in B2 respective finds are rare, and only twelve species are assigned to this group. The underrepresentation of garden plants may be a result of the damp conditions on site, which prevented fragile vegetative parts such as salad leaves or onion skins from being preserved. Present are mainly the robust fruits of coriander (Coriandrum sativum), dill (Anethum graveolens), celery (Apium graveolens), and basil (Ocimum basilicum), as well as hard, needle-like rosemary leaves (Rosmarinus officinalis). Rare occurrences are purple amaranth (Amaranthus cf. lividus), black cumin (Nigella sativa), black mustard (Brassica nigra), salad rocket (Eruca sativa), cumin (Cuminum cyminum), ajowan (Trachyspermum ammi, syn. T. copticum) and, as an ornamental, fruits and leaves of myrtle (Myrtus communis).↩#p3059
Purple amaranth, black mustard, and salad rocket are native in the oasis and grow there as weeds of cultivation; amaranth also grows on neglected land and on canal banks. Salad rocket, and black mustard even more so, are found plentifully on irrigated land. Today they are used together with other weeds such as canary grasses (Phalaris spp.), melilot (Melilotus spp.), cultivated alfalfa (Medicago sativa), and clovers (Trifolium spp.) as fodder for donkeys. They also may have served as animal feed in the past. Whether they were used as vegetables, salads, or spices in the household´s cuisine as well is a matter of speculation.↩#p3060
Most of the other spices and herbs recovered in B2 are not native in Egypt but originate in the Near East. Archaeobotanical evidence suggests that black cumin,35 coriander, dill, celery, and cumin have been known in Egypt since the 18th Dynasty and were initially mainly recovered from royal funerary contexts.36 Later they found their way into the daily life of people and at least since Roman times they seem to have been widely used.37 Basil and ajowan are late-comers and appear in Egyptian sites from the Third Intermediate Period and Roman times onwards respectively.38↩#p3061
Rosemary and myrtle are typical plants of the eastern Mediterranean maquis and are not native in Egypt. So far they have been mainly recovered from funerary contexts: myrtle from Tutankhamon’s tomb,39 rosemary in the Greco-Roman cemeteries at Douch40 and Antinoë,41 as well as at Kellis C2.42 There the most common floral offerings are bouquets of myrtle twigs, while rosemary leaves are lavishly spread on the mummies. With its fragrant white flowers myrtle was a symbol of love beyond death.↩#p3062
Fruits and Nuts
Fruits and nuts were an important element of Egyptian food production throughout history. In B2 there are ten different species classified in this category. Most common are grape (Vitis vinifera ssp. vinifera), olive (Olea europaea), and date (Phoenix dactylifera) (Fig. 17.6). Fig pips (Ficus carica) occur throughout the site both in desiccated as well as in a charred state, and they are sometimes present in considerable numbers. However, since one modern fig contains several hundred pips, these may represent a few fruits only. Rare occurrences are pine (Pinus pinea), peach (Prunus persica), sebesten (Cordia myxa), pomegranate (Punica granatum), watermelon (Citrullus lanatus), and melon (Cucumis melo). The two cucurbits, however, are uncertain identifications.↩#p3063
Figure 17.6: Calculated numbers of fruits and nuts based on seed remains.
Grape and common fig are important sources of sugar. Both ripen in summer or early autumn, and the fruits can be eaten fresh or can be dried for future consumption. The grapes would also have been pressed for the well-known wine of the oasis.↩#p3064
Together with grape, fig, and date, the olive tree was among the earliest cultivated fruit trees in the Old World.43 Olive oil and perhaps also olives have been imported into Egypt since the Old Kingdom,44 and at least from the New Kingdom onwards, olives were grown locally. By the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods the olive tree was grown extensively, and particularly so in the oases. Several documents report an oil called l´Oasitique,45 and the production of olive oil for export to the Nile Valley may have been a source of local wealth.46 Archaeological evidence of olive stones is abundant in both Roman settlements of the oasis, but so far finds of installations pertaining to olive oil production are rare. A part of an olive press has been found in Kellis, House 3, and a quarry near Mut yielded another piece of a press probably dating to the Roman Period.47 Since the recovered olive stones are mostly whole and not crushed as would be expected after processing the fruit for oil,48 the magnitude of olive oil production in the oasis in Roman times is a matter of conjecture.↩#p3065
During the New Kingdom, pomegranate reached Egypt and soon became a valued fruit tree, attested by numerous representations in tombs. As today, it would have been grown in the oasis. Nevertheless it is rare in Amheida, and only six fragments of the hard fruit skin were recovered in B2.↩#p3066
Sebesten is a small tree carrying cherry-like fruit. Presumably it is native to the Indian subcontinent49 but seems to have reached Egypt early. Archaeobotanical finds of sebesten are widespread in Roman times.50 The fruit pulp is edible and was also used for making wine. Besides, it also served in medicine.51 Since the fruit flesh is sticky, the tree may also have been grown for the production of bird lime.52↩#p3067
The cultivation of watermelon and melon has a long tradition in Egypt. Both fruits are appreciated for their juicy fruit flesh, and their seeds are eaten roasted.53↩#p3068
For optimal fruit production, the date palm requires a sustained water supply and moderately hot temperatures of c. 35ºC.54 The Egyptian oases therefore offer optimal conditions for their cultivation. Today, date palms are never planted alone in the oasis, but always grow in combination with other fruit trees such as fig, apricot, and pomegranate, a practice also followed in Roman times.55 The date palm not only offers fruit rich in sugar which can be easily dried for storage, but virtually every part of the tree has been utilised until today in joinery, carpentry, and for cordage; the young shoots can be eaten as a vegetable. Another palm tree with edible fruit, the doum palm (Hyphaene thebaica), only occurs in Egypt and the Sudan and is a typical plant of the Western Desert. Large populations still exist in Kharga, but it is very rare in Dakhla today. Archaeobotanical evidence suggests that it was widely used in the oasis in Roman times. The fibrous fruit-pulp is rich in sugar, iron, and niacin, and children relish it as a substitute for candies. The pulp can be eaten raw or ground into flour for cakes, and it also can be used to make syrup. Young seeds are edible, but when ripe, they become very hard and serve as a “vegetable ivory”. Other parts of the tree can be eaten as well.↩#p3069
With the onset of the Hellenistic Period, a variety of exotic fruits were introduced to Egypt, among them citron (Citrus medica), peach (Prunus persica), and apricot (P. armeniaca). In addition, walnut (Juglans regia), hazelnut (Corylus avellana), and pine kernels and cones (Pinus pinea) were imported. Of these, only one peach stone and one pine cone scale were recovered from soil samples in B2; two more peach stones were hand-picked during excavation, one from room 6 and one from the street. In addition to the culinary use of pine nuts, pine cones seem to have had some religious connotation in Roman times, and therefore they are present throughout the Empire far beyond their natural range.56↩#p3070
Wild Growing Plants
Today in the oasis the occurrence of wild growing plants is dependent on human activity. They are present as weeds of cultivation and grow along irrigation canals and on neglected land near settlements. Only a few specialist taxa, mainly tamarisks (Tamarix spp.) grow beyond the inhabited area in wadis, where their deeply-penetrating roots can reach water not available to other plants.↩#p3071
The wild growing herbaceous plants in the assemblage from B2 are dominated by five plant families, Chenopodiaceae (mainly Suaeda aegyptiaca), Brassicaceae, Fabaceae (most notably Trifolieae and other small seeded legumes), Asphodelaceae (exclusively Asphodelus tenuifolius), and Poaceae (mainly Lolium cf. perenne and Phalaris minor). Since they grow as weeds of cultivation, on neglected land and around water installations (on canal banks, around wells, next to sewers) they could have reached the house together with the harvest or could have been incorporated in animal dung. Especially the tribe Trifolieae comprises several genera that are widely distributed in northeast Africa: Medicago, Melilotus, Ononis, Trifolium, Trigonella. Among others, Medicago lupulina, M. polymorpha, Melilotus indicus, M. serratifolius and Trifolium alexandrinum are valued fodder crops and could have been planted to feed the domestic stock. The cultivation of fodder crops was practiced in Egypt at least since Hellenistic times, and contemporaneous texts list Lathyrus, Vicia, Trigonella and Trifolium as fodder plants.57↩#p3072
Of the wild growing woody plants extant in the oasis today, only acacia (Acacia nilotica, Acacia sp.) and tamarisk were recovered. Today, tamarisk is mainly used as fuel, while young acacia twigs are cut for fodder, and the trees are frequently browsed by goats.↩#p3073
The Archaeobotanical Inventory of Rooms, the Courtyard, and the Street
Table 17.1 at the end of this chapter summarizes the archaeobotanical remains from House B2. Discussion of the remains from individual areas of the house follows. The detailed data supporting this discussion are available via the online version of this text, which at the time of this writing is published at the URL <http://dlib.nyu.edu/awdl/isaw/amheida-ii-house-b2/>.↩#p3074
Room 1
Twelve samples for archaeobotanical analysis were taken; four from feature 11 (a remnant floor), and eight samples from debris below the floor, F11, which was probably deposited there to create a level surface for floor construction. All of the samples contained both desiccated and charred plant remains in varying proportions with a density of 9.9 to 920.8 items per liter. The remains of fruits and nuts are dominant in all samples while pulses are missing. Sample 05-023 from Feature 11 is exceptional. Besides the usual assemblage of fruits, nuts, vegetables, spices, oil and fiber plants, Sample 05-023 also contains desiccated chaff of emmer wheat, which constitutes c. 90 % of the plant remains in this sample. Finds of other cereals are very rare here. It seems likely that emmer wheat was processed in situ in room 1. Emmer wheat is hulled, which means that the grains are tightly invested in their glumes and are not released upon threshing. Instead, threshing only breaks the ear into segments (spikelets). Since emmer glumes are not fit for human consumption, these have to be removed by pounding and subsequent winnowing. In contrast to naked wheat, the processing of hulled wheat requires an increased labor input before the grains are ready for consumption. This disadvantage is compensated by a better protection of the grain from mold, and emmer wheat is therefore often stored as spikelets. The necessary additional processing can be carried out on a day-to-day basis, and the concentration of spikelet forks and glume bases in one spot on the floor seems to be the result of such activity. The location of a bread oven in room 7 immediately to the west of room 1 may be the reason why the processing of emmer spikelets was carried out here.↩#p3075
In the eight samples from DSU 31, desiccated and charred plant remains occur in almost equal proportions. The assemblages again represent a mixture of plants cultivated in the oasis. Fruits and nuts are dominant. Charred cereal remains occur in higher numbers than desiccated ones. Since refuse from cereal processing is often fed to livestock, it may have entered the assemblage via the utilisation of animal dung as fuel. The comparatively high proportion of wild-growing plants corroborates this assumption. Alternatively, cereal processing waste may have been disposed of in a fire.↩#p3076
Room 2
Five samples for archaeobotanical analysis were taken from three deposits in room 2.↩#p3077
DSU 7 is a somewhat compacted layer of loamy sand, which occurs at floor level and probably represents occupational debris left on top of the eroded floor. The density of plant remains in the two samples from the northern (05-003) and the southern part (05-004) of the deposit is comparatively low. The assemblage is dominated by desiccated plant remains, and in the southern part the charred remains contain only a single olive stone. Apart from that, the samples contain the usual mixture of domestic plant refuse.↩#p3078
A rich variety of cereals, fiber plants, spices and fruits, both in desiccated and in charred form, is present in the sample from DSU 17, a patch of occupational debris. The only remains of bishop´s weed (Trachyspermum ammi) on site were recovered here.↩#p3079
Two samples were taken from DSU 20, a pocket of loamy sand containing pottery in the center of the room. One sample (05-006) is particularly rich and contains almost the complete spectrum of cultivated plants found in Building B2. Tree crops are dominant, followed by cereals (¾ naked wheat, ¼ barley), oil/fiber and garden plants. Two of the few (charred) lentils were recovered here.↩#p3080
None of the samples contained desiccated cereal grains.↩#p3081
Room 3
In room 3, two samples were taken from occupational debris at floor level (DSU 18), and one from a stratum between the collapsed roof and the floor (DSU 19). While DSU 18 presents the already well-known picture, DSU 19 displays a much higher concentration of plant remains with a pronounced prevalence of desiccated fruit, mainly of grape and olive, but also contains the only fragment of a pine cone recovered on the site, and a high concentration of fiber plants: 200 flax capsules. These flax capsules corroborate the assumption based on the recovery of objects associated with linen weaving, that flax was handled in this room. However, since the deposit is sandwiched between the floor and the roof collapse, it may have accumulated at any point of time after the house was abandoned and before the roof collapsed.↩#p3082
Room 4
One sample was taken from occupational debris above floor F15. Most of the botanical remains (c. 87 %) survived in desiccated form. The charred remains consist almost exclusively of grape stalks. The sampled deposit is poor in cereals, but rich in fruits, with grape being dominant among these fruits. Other finds include fig seeds, some olive stones and leaves, as well as three seeds that probably belong to melon.↩#p3083
Room 5
One sample each was taken from three different deposits.↩#p3084
The fill of hearth F46 (DSU 71) yielded almost exclusively desiccated plant remains, with a strong emphasis on fruit. Most noteworthy are the dominance of grape (788 pips) and the absence of date. The charred plant remains constitute less than 1% of the assemblage and therefore the fill of the hearth must have accumulated when the structure was no longer used for cooking. An indication of previous food preparation is the presence of charred durum wheat and barley grains.↩#p3085
In DSU 41, a possible burnt layer associated with objects used for cooking, the density of plant remains is rather low. In contrast to the fill of hearth F46, here the majority of plant remains (c. 78 %) are charred. Wild plants, fruits, and cereals are dominant, while linseed constitutes a comparatively high proportion (6.4 %) of the charred plant remains. The combination of the remains of wild plants and cereals suggests that waste from cereal processing, and possibly dung, was used to make a fire.↩#p3086
The sample from DSU 42, which consists of occupational debris above a possible floor, displays a diversified plant assemblage and features many of the useful plants recovered at Amheida. Cereals, represented by chaff and grain, are dominant. The emphasis is on barley, and DSU 42 is one of the few spots where a twisted lateral grain of six-row barley was recovered.↩#p3087
The samples from DSU 41 and DSU 42 are exceptional since the assemblages do not display the usual very strong emphasis on fruits and nuts, but contain fair amounts of cereals and wild plants; vegetables and spices are rather rare. This result may point to a cereal processing or cooking area. However, the deposits DSU 41 and DSU 42 were not sealed, and therefore later contamination cannot be excluded.↩#p3088
Room 6
One sample was taken from DSU 47, the occupational debris above floor F16 located in the western half of room 6. It almost exclusively contains desiccated plant remains with an emphasis on fruits, mainly grape and fig. The spectrum is biased towards fig, and 713 pips were extracted from the deposit. However, since one mature fig can contain several hundred pips, these may represent two fruits only.↩#p3089
In addition, eight doum fruits were manually picked out from DSU 46, which consists of occupational debris immediately on top of floor F16 in the eastern half of room 6. From DSU 69, situated below the level of the floor F16, 98 olive stones, three date pits, and one peach stone were extracted during excavation.↩#p3090
Room 7
One sample of occupational debris above floor level (DSU 75) was recovered. It contains only desiccated plant remains, with the usual dominance of garden plants and tree crops, as well as cereals, pulses, oil and fiber plants, and wild growing plants. The diversity of plants is higher here than in other deposits, and otherwise very rare domesticates such as pearl millet and fava bean are present. Most noteworthy is the occurrence of 220 rosemary leaves, which are usually rare in domestic contexts.↩#p3091
Room 8
One sample was analyzed from DSU 60; this features mainly desiccated cereals, oil and fiber plants, and tree crops, as well as weeds and wild-growing plants in almost equal proportions.↩#p3092
Room 11
One sample of material adhering to the roof of F11, F43, was collected. Almost all of the plant remains (97.8%) were preserved by desiccation. As is typical within this structure, the assemblage contains mainly tree crops (fig and grape) as well as one of the very rare sesame seeds and a few wild-growing plants; the two charred items are a rachis fragment of durum wheat and a barley grain.↩#p3093
Courtyard C2A
Five matrix samples were taken for archaeobotanical analysis. The contents of these samples vary considerably concerning the density of plant remains, as well as the ratio of desiccated to charred remains. Garden plants and fruits are once again dominant. A single peach stone was grab-sampled during excavation. It is notable that there are many tiny little leaves of camel thorn (Alhagi graecorum) and other wild plants, which may represent the remnants of animal fodder. However, since this area was an open courtyard and the deposits are very close to the surface, contamination with modern material is likely.↩#p3094
Street S1
The street (S1) outside House B2 was not sampled systematically for archaeobotanical remains. Only single larger items, two olive stones and one peach stone, were recovered manually during excavation.↩#p3095
Summary
In the archaeobotanical inventory of B2 almost all plants typical for a household of the third century CE in the Dakhla Oasis are present. It comprises a variety of staple crops, oil and fiber plants, vegetables, herbs and spices, as well as fruit. Of these, often not only the cleaned product but also processing waste such as cereal chaff and flax capsules is present. It can therefore be assumed that the plants were grown by and processed in the household. The range of edible plants met the nutritional needs of the inhabitants of B2, and presumably the household was self-sufficient. However, pearl millet, an important component of the diet at Kellis, is present in minute quantities only. Whether this conspicuous absence is caused by adverse conditions for its preservation or whether it is caused by culinary preference of other cereals, is a matter of conjecture. But then emmer wheat, otherwise rare in the oasis, seems to have been a minor crop in B2.↩#p3096
The dominance of fruit in almost all contexts is unusual. However, the question whether this bias indicates cultivation for commercial purposes or whether it is a result of taphonomical processes, remains unresolved.↩#p3097
Conspicuously absent or very rare in the assemblage are imported luxury commodities such as black pepper and nuts (walnut, hazelnut, and pine nut) as well as citron, apple and apricot. This may be taken as an indication that the primary concern was feeding the inhabitants and not bothering with luxuries.↩#p3098
Table 17.1: Summary table of plant remains from rooms and courtyard.
Room
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
11
Courtyard
Number of Samples
12
5
3
1
3
1
1
1
1
5
Volume (Litre)
49.5
23.0
17.7
4.8
12.9
3.5
5.9
5.0
1.1
16.1
Desiccated Plant Remains
Cereal Chaff
Triticum dicoccum
spikelet fork
334
1
1
Triticum dicoccum
glume base
1830
4
Triticum durum
rachis
21
102
46
6
60
15
27
43
Triticum aestivum s.l.
rachis
2
6
8
2
7
4
Triticum sp.
rachis
3
16
Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare
rachis
20
27
27
6
140
1
13
9
59
Cerealia
rachis
6
3
8
Pennisetum glaucum ssp. glaucum
involucrum
6
Cereal Grain
Triticum durum
grain
4
9
2
Triticum sp.
grain
23
4
Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare
grain
2
3
11
6
26
Cerealia
grain
4
49
6
Pennisetum glaucum ssp. glaucum
grain
4
4
Pulses
Vicia faba
seed
2
Vicia faba
testa
16
Oil and Fibre Plants
Linum usitatissimum
flower
23
26
13
5
3
8
Linum usitatissimum
capsule
48
25
215
6
7
1
17
9
67
Linum usitatissimum
seed
17
47
18
5
63
48
45
4
Gossypium sp.
seed
7
11
29
7
2
1
1
Sesamum indicum
seed
3
3
2
1
Carthamus tinctorius
seed
15
10
53
5
6
2
3
1
Vegetables, Herbs, Spices
Amaranthus cf. lividus
seed
10
Nigella sativa
seed
2
12
2
Brassica nigra
seed
1
1
1
6
3
Eruca sativa
seed
1
7
Coriandrum sativum
seed
12
15
7
4
1
1
Anethum graveolens
seed
2
27
40
Apium graveolens
seed
3
Cuminum cyminum
seed
6
3
Trachyspermum ammi
seed
9
Ocimum basilicum
seed
15
6
18
1
Rosmarinus officinalis
leaf
10
64
9
220
Myrtus communis
leaf
2
1
5
Myrtus communis
seed
8
Fruits and Nuts
Pinus pinea
cone
1
Ficus carica
seed
582
1034
2135
329
339
713
12
23
54
Prunus persica
seed
1
Vitis vinifera ssp. vinifera
vegetative
6
1
2
Vitis vinifera ssp. vinifera
stalk
142
63
104
28
2
14
Vitis vinifera ssp. vinifera
fruit
1
Vitis vinifera ssp. vinifera
seed
442
260
539
499
854
98
24
15
32
98
Citrullus cf. lanatus
seed
2
1
1
Cucumis cf. melo
seed
1
3
Cordia myxa
seed
3
1
Olea europaea
leaf
1
4
16
6
10
Olea europaea
fruit
1
Olea europaea
seed
135
118
323
43
28
8
5
17
8
Punica granatum
fruit
5
1
Phoenix dactylifera
leaf
3
Phoenix dactylifera
flower
14
1
3
Phoenix dactylifera
stalk
8
5
11
4
1
1
1
Phoenix dactylifera
seed
45
19
2
3
3
2
Arecaceae
vegetative
7
Wild Growing Plants
Polygonum sp.
seed
1
2
1
2
1
2
Portulaca oleracea
seed
2
Silene sp.
seed
3
8
9
1
16
3
5
2
Chenopodium murale
seed
5
1
1
2
Suaeda aegyptiaca
seed
8
24
57
2
Chenopodium murale
seed
4
Chenopodiaceae
seed
4
1
2
Fumaria cf. densiflora
seed
2
10
2
17
4
4
Brassica sp.
seed
5
90
Brassicaceae
seed
2
1
2
Medicago sativa
seed
1
1
Medicago sp.
pod
6
Trifolium alexandrinum
seed
3
Trifolieae
seed
6
16
14
2
1
128
Vicia sp.
seed
11
Alhagi graecorum
leaf
4
340
Alhagi graecorum
pod
87
Alhagi graecorum
seed
4
1
Fabaceae
seed
1
42
32
Acacia nilotica
fruit
13
1
10
Acacia sp.
leaf
5
2
Acacia sp.
flower
64
2
Acacia sp.
seed
1
Euphorbia peplus
seed
1
Malva parviflora
seed
1
8
1
Malvaceae
seed
2
Tamarix sp.
vegetative
38
59
6
2
4
24
Tamarix sp.
flower
13
Tamarix sp.
seed
1
Cucurbitaceae
seed
6
1
4
Apiaceae
seed
4
2
1
Anagallis arvensis
seed
8
Boraginaceae
seed
8
cf. Mentha pulegium
seed
1
Lamiaceae
vegetative
4
Lamiaceae
seed
4
8
Withania somnifera
seed
2
1
2
2
Calendula arvensis
seed
1
2
Sonchus oleraceus
seed
3
1
11
2
Asphodelus tenuifolius
seed
22
37
21
1
47
8
6
4
8
Lolium cf. perenne
spikelet
4
2
Lolium cf. perenne
seed
8
7
11
Lolium sp.
seed
3
4
Avena cf. fatua
spikelet
2
Avena cf. fatua
seed
8
Phalaris minor
seed
3
6
18
7
Phalaris paradoxa
spikelet
2
5
Phalaris paradoxa
glume
8
cf. Brachypodium distachyum
seed
1
cf. Panicum repens
flower
1
Panicoideae
spikelet
3
Panicoideae
seed
2
Sorghum virgatum
seed
4
3
Poaceae
node
6
2
Poaceae
spikelet
3
Poaceae
rachis
2
6
12
Poaceae
glume
1
Poaceae
seed
4
1
1
2
Bolboschoenus glaucus
seed
6
2
2
1
28
Cyperaceae
seed
1
Sum Desiccated Plant Remains
3921
2210
3833
936
1798
936
521
216
89
1006
Charred Plant Remains
Cereal Chaff
Triticum dicoccum
glume base
1
1
Triticum durum
rachis
135
38
7
13
1
5
Triticum aestivum s.l.
rachis
5
7
8
Triticum sp.
rachis
2
Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare
rachis
45
25
3
16
4
Cerealia
rachis
11
3
Cerealia
glume
1
Pennisetum glaucum ssp. glaucum
involucrum
8
Cereal Grain
Triticum durum
grain
14
8
36
1
1
Triticum sp.
grain
6
1
1
2
1
Hordeum vulgare ssp. vulgare
grain
13
2
5
10
1
3
Cerealia
grain
3
1
8
Panicum miliaceum
grain
4
Pennisetum glaucum ssp.
glaucum
grain
2
1
4
Pulses
Lens culinaris
seed
2
2
Vicia faba
seed
1
Fabaceae (cult.)
seed
1
Oil and Fibre Plants
Linum usitatissimum
flower
1
Linum usitatissimum
capsule
7
9
6
Linum usitatissimum
seed
2
2
22
Gossypium sp.
seed
36
5
5
1
Carthamus tinctorius
seed
1
Vegetables, Herbs, Spices
Brassica nigra
seed
15
Coriandrum sativum
seed
2
Cuminum cyminum
seed
3
Ocimum basilicum
seed
1
1
Rosmarinus officinalis
leaf
4
Sesamum indicum
seed
3
Myrtus communis
seed
2
8
4
Fruits and Nuts
Ficus carica
seed
93
38
21
10
6
Vitis vinifera ssp. vinifera
stalk
9
1
136
2
Vitis vinifera ssp. vinifera
seed
232
13
15
17
1
12
Cordia myxa
seed
1
Olea europaea
leaf
101
4
4
Olea europaea
seed
68
88
50
1
43
7
2
Phoenix dactylifera
leaf
11
Phoenix dactylifera
stalk
6
1
49
Phoenix dactylifera
fruit
1
Phoenix dactylifera
seed
102
56
14
16
14
Arecaceae
vegetative
13
Wild Growing Plants
Polygonum sp.
seed
2
Portulaca oleracea
seed
7
4
Silene sp.
seed
3
Chenopodium murale
seed
2
Suaeda aegyptiaca
seed
13
2
Brassicaceae
seed
77
Medicago cf. sativa
seed
1
2
2
Medicago g
seed
4
1
Melilotus sp.
seed
10
2
Trifolium cf. alexandrinum
seed
4
Trifolium cf. resupinatum
seed
1
Trifolieae
seed
8
21
10
28
Alhagi graecorum
seed
1
cf. Alhagi graecorum
leaf
5
1
8
Vicia sp.
seed
2
Fabaceae
seed
20
6
1
Acacia nilotica
fruit
15
Acacia sp.
leaf
10
1
Acacia sp.
flower
22
9
4
Acacia sp.
seed
99
2
1
Malva cf. parviflora
seed
2
3
Malvaceae
seed
2
1
Tamarix sp.
vegetative
87
112
12
3
16
Lamiaceae
seed
1
Calendula arvensis
seed
1
Asteraceae
seed
2
Asphodelus tenuifolius
seed
13
5
6
Lolium cf. perenne
seed
4
10
Lolium sp.
seed
6
3
Phalaris minor
seed
4
cf. Brachypodium distachyum
seed
1
1
1
cf. Setaria sp.
seed
2
Panicoideae
spikelet
1
Panicoideae
seed
4
Sorghum virgatum
spikelet
1
13
Sorghum virgatum
seed
4
Poaceae
node
31
1
1
Poaceae
spikelet
1
Poaceae
rachis
4
1
Poaceae
seed
6
6
1
3
Bolboschoenus glaucus
seed
8
17
Cyperaceae
seed
2
1
Sum Charred Plant Remains
1293
531
188
138
376
7
0
14
2
137
Total
5214
2741
4021
1074
2174
943
521
230
91
1143
The following tables are an online supplement to the data published in the print volume.
Supplementary Table 17.1: Summary Table of Plant Remains from rRooms and Courtyard
2 The site is being excavated by Colin A. Hope, Monash University, on behalf of the Dakhleh Oasis Project. For more information see http://arts.monash.edu.au/archaeology/excavations/dakhleh/ismant-el-kharab/index.php.
11 Under the term glume base broken spikelet forks where less than half of the spikelet is preserved as well as actual (rare) glume bases are summarized.
13 In six-row barley each of the three single-flowered spikelets per rachis segment is fertile and produces a grain. While the central grain is usually straight, the two lateral ones are twisted. Theoretically the ratio of straight to twisted grains should therefore be 1:2. However, a total of only two twisted grains was recovered. Identification of the rachis fragments was not attempted.
